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Chapter II
Literature Review
Many cultures define health and
illness in the framework of the flow of vital energy through the body.
Illness is believed to result when the flow of energy is not in balance
or is interfered with. Among the more developed and medically
effective applications of this concept are India's Ayurvedic medicine
and Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). Many of the concepts of
these two systems are very similar and share much in common as there
is a long history of exchange of ideas and concepts between these two
cultures. TCM views illness as an imbalance of two types of energy
yin and yang which simultaneously exist in everyone and everything and
within each other. "Ayurvedic theory states that all disease begins
with an imbalance or stress in the individual's consciousness. Lifestyle
interventions are a major Ayurvedic preventive and therapeutic approach."
(1992 NIH) Western culture long maintained a similar belief, inherited
from the ancient Greeks, in the concept of the balance of the four humors
in Hippocratic medicine. This concept was passed into the New
World and combined with other traditions in Latin America to evolve
into the modern practice of curanderismo where things might be classified
as:
...having qualitative (not literal) characteristics
of hot or cold, dry or moist. According
to this theory, good health is maintained by maintaining a balance
of hot and cold. Thus, a good meal will contain both
hot and cold foods, and a person with a
hot disease must be given cold remedies and vice versa. Again,
a person who is exposed to cold when excessively hot
may "take cold" and become ill.
(1992 NIH)
Another related Western idea was the theory of "animal
magnetism" which was put forward by Parcelsus (1493-1541) who believed
the stars influenced humans through some type of magnetic force and
later Van Helmont (1577-1644) suggested each individual radiated a form
of animal magnetism which influenced others (1992 Mind Power 40).
This background led to the growth of hypnosis in the work of Franz Mesmer
(1734-1815) who "...theorized that the two halves of the human body
acted like the poles of a magnet, and that illness was caused by an
improper distribution of this magnetism" (1992 Mind Power 40).
And in our contemporary culture we have the tradition of mental healing
also known as prayer or faith healing.
Prayer and mental healing techniques fall into two
main types. In Type I healing, the healer
enters a prayerful, altered state of consciousness in which
he views himself and the patient as a single entity. There need be no
physical contact and there is no attempt to "do anything"
or "give something" to the person in need,
only the desire to unite and "become one"
with him or her and with the Universe, God, or Cosmos. Type II
healers, on the other hand, do touch the healee and
describe some "flow of energy" through their
hands to the patient's areas of pathology. Feelings of
heat are common in both healer and healee. These healing techniques
are offered only as generalities. Some healers
use both methodologies, even in the same
healing session, and other healing methods could be described.
There exist many published reports of experiments in
which persons apparently were able to influence
a variety of cellular and other biological systems
through mental means. The target systems for these investigations
have included bacteria, yeast, fungi, mobile algae,
plants, protozoa, larvae, insects, chicks,
mice, rats, gerbils, cats, and dogs, as well as cellular
preparations (blood cells, neurons, cancercells) and
enzyme activities. In human "target persons,"
eye movements, muscular movements, electrodermal
activity, plethysmographic activity, respiration, and brain
rhythms have been apparently affected through direct
mental influence. (1992 NIH)
We shall focus on the traditional Chinese view and shall
first discuss the traditional conception of this energy flow involving
points (which can be stimulated both by external pressure acupressure
and/or by acupuncture needles). Secondly, meridians, consisting
of groups of these points. Thirdly, the division of these meridians
into yin or yang (negative and positive). Finally, the further
division of the meridians further into a five element classification
scheme. After this conceptual groundwork has been applied we shall
then turn to what Western science has to offer in way of explanation
of the observed effects of this particular medical system and/or view.
The final topic to be covered will be the highest "development" of this
world-view, in the practice of movement and breathing exercises known
as Qigong, which claims to build one's life force and give one the ability
to have some control over its flow.
Explanation of the TCM concept of
human energy flow
Although most people assume that inert matter is
completely solid or dense, it is energy
that binds the protons, electrons, and neutrons within each individual
atom. Inanimate matter, then is simply energy
at a different rate of vibration than
most other forms of life. Energy therefore is the absolute basis
for all forms of life and matter in the
universe. (1985 Chang 57)
The vital force or energy that is seen to course through
all of us is known as "Chi" or "Qi" in Chinese and "Ki" in Japanese.
There is no exact meaning or definition of this concept as it encompasses
more than just vital force "everything in the universe, organic and
inorganic, is composed of and defined by its Qi" (1983, Kaptchuck
35).
The concept of Ki can be further clarified by a metaphor
first introduced by Locke (1989), who
likens the energy within each of us to a two-headed match
that emanates energy from both ends. The bottom
part is in our "center," the tanden, located
approximately two inches below the navel. Our center is eternally
lit and emanates energy in the form of vibrations.
This concept allows us an avenue of
awareness of our bodies and gives us the eventual ability to control
our physical selves within the confines
of nature. The other end of the match, our mind, is likewise
lit and allows us knowledge and wisdom and to become
aware of our mental potential and to cultivate
these potentialities. In Locke's metaphor, Ki can refer, on
the one hand, to the physical power within,
the intense power emanating from our center, a power
controlling our movements. The other end portrays another variation
of Ki, the power of the mind, the power
of consciousness, the piercing power of knowledge which leads to
wisdom. (1990 Seitz 462-463)
This view of Qi is then divided into the opposites of
yin (negative) and yang (positive). "Polarity is the most pervasive
principle of the manifest material universe, providing the boundless
dynamic force which makes the world go round" (1994, Reid 24).
"Without polarity material worlds and physical bodies could not exist,
and without polar fields energy could not function, essence could
not take form, and the rhythmic cycles of nature could not transpire"
(24). However, "there are no absolutes" and yin and yang must,
necessarily, contain within themselves the possibility of opposition
and change" (1983, Kaptchuk 8). Thus, the Chinese "hypothesized
the principles of Yin and Yang as the major philosophical counterparts
revealing the phenomena of nature" (1986, Shen 134). "From these
principles, three systems were derived: the five elements (wood, fire,
earth, metal, water), the Zang Fu (internal organs), and the meridian
system" (134).
The five elements are a further
division of the conceptual system that classifies things into a corresponding
element. However, the application of this system medically is
"often too rigid to describe physiological functions accurately" and
is at times ignored (1983, Kaptchuk 349). The elements are arranged
in a creative cycle (fire, earth, metal, water, wood) and a destructive
cycle (fire, metal, wood, earth, water). Generally, (in concert
with the meridian system and yin and yang principle) the creative
cycle is for increasing energy or tonification and the destructive
cycle is used for lessening energy or dispersion. This
application is used both for medical purposes and what in the martial
arts is known as dim-mak (Chinese) or kyusho (Japanese). The
martial aspect is a particularly interesting one and, until recently,
has long been kept secret, as one can use it to cause a knock-out
or death with very little force (1994 Dillman 27-28).
The flow of Qi through the
body is seen to be via the meridian system composed of acupuncture
points (also known as pressure points). "The electrical conductance
of skin at acupuncture points is normally higher than that of the
skin in general" (1995 Cumunetti 328). Electric current in the
skin was orbitally studied in psychology and physiology in experiments
where a weak electric current is applied to a point on the skin that
is circuited, the electrical potential changes and the resulting wave
is recorded on a graph (1993 Yasuo 113). One application of
this phenomenon is the lie detector. "This phenomenon was discovered
in the beginning of this century, and when Jung saw the experiment
in its initial phase, he apparently remarked that the skin is a window
to look into the unconscious" (113).
These points and meridians
are seen to be functionally related to corresponding internal organs.
Since there are several hundred acupuncture points "the Chinese classified
them into twelve main groups and a few subsidiary ones" with each
being assigned a relation to a particular organ function (1971 Mann
37). Thus, when one speaks of an organ, in TCM, it is not in
reference to the actual physical organ but the energy meridian it
is seen to correspond to. The energy is seen to flow from the
ground up the front of the body and down the back with the front being
yin and back yang. The twelve meridians in the order of energy
flow, along with their corresponding element and yin or yang state
are the following:
Organ
Element
State
Lungs
Metal
Yin
Large Intestine
Metal
Yang
Stomach
Earth
Yang
Spleen
Earth
Yin
Heart
Fire
Yin
Small Intestine
Fire
Yang
Bladder Water
Yang
Kidney
Water
Yin
Pericardium
Fire Yin
Triple
Warmer Fire Yang
Gall
Bladder Wood Yang
Liver
Wood
Yin
All of these are bilateral and occur on both sides of
the body. Eight additional meridians that serve as "energy reservoirs"
exist that are very important for distributing energy to the other
meridians. The extraordinary vessels act as qi reservoirs and
thus, do not have a set flow pattern. One of their main functions
is to supply or tonify the twelve meridians with qi when any one of
them has a shortage as well as to drain off or sedate qi when any
of them has an excess. Due to this functionality they have to
be able to distribute qi flow in different directions.
The pericardium is seen as
a protective sheath around the heart and the triple warmer "is not
a single self-contained organ, but rather a functional energy system
involved in regulating the activities of the other organs" (1994 Reid
61). You will notice a distinctive pattern of two organs with
the same element designation but, opposite yin-yang "charges" and
also that it is a circular flow that proceeds via a yin-yin (negative
to negative) to yang-yang (positive to positive) cycle. This
is known as the diurnal cycle and the flow moves from one organ to
another every two hours.
Acupuncture points and their
meridians when utilized as a medical treatment have also been described
without the concept of the energy flow by Western science as follows:
The ways in which treatments involving acupuncture
points are believed to work can be described
in a scientific framework, e.g., stimulatation of nerves, counter
irritation treatments, stimulation of the body to
produce its naturally occurring chemical
compounds, and belief. Sometimes scientists can learn about
the modality of effect by the speed at
which the effect occurs, or about the influence of
belief by experimentation on animals (and some acupuncture treatments
do in fact work on animals). It
is generally not considered necessary by most Western practitioners
to invoke Chi as an explanation.
(1995 Huston 41).
However the energy concept is not totally alien to the
Western world view either:
Bioenergetic research is not unknown to western science.
Harold Saxton Burr in 1935 described a
system of electro-dynamic fields (1935 Burr). He worked
with the electromagnetic currents in the
bodies of salamanders and then in humans which
he finally named L-fields (life fields) (1973 Burr). Robert
Becker reconfirmed Burr's work and applied
DC current to regenerating salamander tails
and healing human bone fractures. In his work with
the National Institutes of Health (1992
NIH) Becker clarified that the perineural (nerve sheath) network is
highly conductive (1985 Becker). B.E.W. Nordenstrom
has described theVascular interstitial
closed circuit as a system of preferential ion conductance
pathways comprising a network of biological circuitry (1983
Nordenstrom). There is some suggestion that
even more subtle energies resonate in
the human system and may be projected over substantial distances.
(1991Jahnke 22)
Such research has come to be known as bioelectromagnetics:
Bioeletromagnetics (BEM) is an emerging science that
studies how living organisms interact
with electromagnetic (EM) fields. Electrical phenomena
are found in all living organisms, and electrical
currents in the body can produce magnetic
fields that extend outside the body. Those that extend
outside the body can be influenced by external magnetic
and EM fields. Changes in the body's natural
fields may produce physical and behavioral changes.
(1992 NIH)
TCM energy theory is also very similar to Franz Mesmer's
belief that:
...disease and healing were part of natural cosmic
law, and that space was filled with special
'animal magnetism' through which 'the magnetic influence of the
heavens affects all parts of the body.' Any
interruption in the natural ebb and flow of
this universal substance had a direct effect on the nerves, thus causing
disease.
(1992 Mind Power 42)
As well the NIH informs us:
Modern theories of acupuncture are based on laboratory
research conducted in the past 40 years.
Acupuncture points have certain electrical properties, and
stimulating these points alters chemical neurotransmitters
in the body. The physiological effects
of acupuncture stimulation in experimental animals have
been well documented, and in the past 20 years acupuncture
has become an
increasingly established health care practice. An
estimated 3,000 conventionally trained
U.S. physicians have taken courses to incorporate acupuncture
in their medical practices. Acupuncture
is one of the most thoroughly researched and documented
of the so-called alternative medical practices. A series of controlled
studies has shown evidence for the efficacy of acupuncture
in the treatment of a
variety of conditions, including osteoarthritis,
chemotherapy-induced nausea, asthma, back
pain, painful menstrual cycles, bladder instability, and migraine
headaches. Studies on acupuncture also have shown
positive results in the areas of chronic
pain management and in the management of drug addition, two areas
where conventional Western medicine has had only
a modicum of success.
(1992 NIH)
Regardless of whether Chinese or Western terminology
is used to describe the functioning of the points and meridians, research
shows that they have an effect on both humans and animals.
The importance of the
mind and its relation to disease, and thus energy flow, in traditional
Chinese medicine can be seen in the fact that it believes that strong
emotions can be unhealthy. "It is only when an emotion is either
excessive or insufficient over a long period of time, or when it arises
very suddenly with great force, that it can generate imbalance and
illness" and "internal disharmony can generate unbalanced emotional
states" (1983 Kaptchuk 129). "Thus, joy hurts the Xin (heart),
its Qi being dissipated; anger harms the Gan (liver), its Qi increasing;
grief harms the Fei (lung), its Qi Congealing; thinking harms the
Pi (spleen), its Qi becoming stagnant; sorrow harms the Xinbao (pericardium),
its Qi being weakened; fear harms the Shen (kidney), its Qi decreasing,
and shock harms the Dan (gall bladder), its Qi becoming chaotic" (1986
Shen 135).
This relation between the mind
and illness has only recently received serious consideration by Western
science. A growing field that looks at this relation is psychoneuroimmunology,
which studies the interactions between behavior, the brain and the
immune system. This field believes that the immune system controls
neural function, and the central nervous system controls the immune
system and "the existence of neural- immune interactions permits behavioral-psychological
events to enter the matrix: if neural processes regulate immune processes,
then there is a pathway by which psychological factors could impact
immunity" and "conversely, if immune processes alter neural function,
then they can also potentially impact on behavior, emotion, and thought"
(1994 Maier 1005). Thus, "there are a number of important relationships
between immune, endocrine, and behavioral factors and most importantly,
these relationships are not unidirectional" (1994 Laudenslager 760).
Chiropractors are beginning to use the emotional concept of Chinese
medicine along with the psychoneuroimmunology theory to treat certain
physiological disorders that are caused by emotions. Scott Walker,
D.C. is a leading proponent of this method and believes that "emotions
are physiological rather than psychological" and "physiology of emotions
is generally an arousal of the autonomic nervous system" and he also
reminds us that "Pavlov was a physiologist rather than a psychologist"
(1991 Amaro 6). This method is not currently learned in chiropractor
schools but, as part of their continuing education at seminars conducted
by such people alker. A local chiropractor I interviewed,
uses very similar technique to treat emotional imbalances and he can,
as well, detect and correct energy imbalances. The method that
he generally uses to discover and correct such problems is called
muscle testing and is based on applied kinesiology principles (see
also 1991 Sancier 371, 1985 Diamond).
The energy flow theory of points
and meridians and their relation to the mind/body connection has been
explained by Western science under the "Thalmic Neuron Theory" or
TNT. This theory is very similar to the view of psychoneuroimmunology
and assumes that the central nervous system (CNS) plays a role
in all disease processes. The theory states that "the CNS not
only processes incoming physical and chemical information from the
periphery, it also sends out physiological commands to the periphery
in order to maintain homeostasis for the entire body" (1994 Lee 285).
Further, it states that disease is a result of the CNS's learning
ability (pathological habituation) resulting in deranged central neural
circuitries which leads to chronic disease states and these states
"can be reversed by dehabituation through manipulation or modulation
of the abnormal neural circuits by physical means (physical neurmodulation)
like acupuncture, or chemical means (chemoneurmodulation) such as
Chinese medicine, homeopathy or other modern medical techniques in
a repetitious manner to mimic the habituation process" (285).
This theory results in five general principles:
1. Every dysfunction arising from the periphery,....will
either immediately or eventually lead
to an equivalent derangement in the equivalent neural circuitries
within the CNS.
2. The CNS then responds by instituting corrective
measures, resulting in the normalization of these neural
circuits which then correct the deficiencies in the diseased
part of the periphery to end the disease process.
3. If the normalization of the physiological
programs embodied in the neural circuitries
in the CNS is impaired, the initial derangement may remain status
quo or can cause other neural circuits
to go awry. Hence the disease either stays chronic
or progresses.
4. Any event that can adversely affect any
central circuitry is therefore capable of inducing pathological
changes, resulting in diseases. Overly intense emotions such
as anger, grief or fear can cause the central circuitries to malfunction.
...Likewise, devastatingly strong physical
stresses such as excessive heat, cold,
humidity, etc. are equally capable of setting up neurophysiological
derangements within the CNS. These resultant
malfunctions in the CNS can not only themselves
cause physical illnesses, but can also set up such conditions
as to increase the individual's susceptibility to other pathogenic
processes.
5. The CNS itself can also malfunction due
to aberrant biochemical reactions stemming
from say, genetic diseases like manic depression, Huntington's, chorea,
etc. (286).
The theory also recognizes meridians but, states they
only exist in the brain and do not exist in the periphery and are
buried deep in the CNS and that "chi is nothing more than neural transmissions"
(288). These transmissions can be felt "since spontaneous neural
discharges do occur along these meridian pathways centrally" and "are
equivalent to the flow of chi and can sometimes be felt subjectively
as a sensation traveling along these pathways on the body surface"
(288). Mann, lends some support to some aspects of this role
of the CNS when he states, "in some places the course of meridians
follows the pathways of nerves or the position of dermatomes, in others
it does not" and "in most (but by no means all) instances a neurological
explanation fits in with more of the observed facts than with the
hypothetical meridians" (1971 228).
Qigong
Breathing and movement exercises
to build and control Qi have been developed and claim great therapeutic
benefits. These exercises are known as "Qigong" or "Chee Kung"
in Chinese and "Kiko" or "Ki Atsu" in Japanese and have much in common
with Indian Yoga. Qigong is one of the five branches of TCM
along with acupuncture, massage, herbology, and nutrition. The
exercises are of two types, active qigong and passive qigong.
Active qigong has obvious movement and looks like a dance whereas
passive qigong focuses on the internal and breathing.
Thus, active qigong is more like exercise and passive qigong is more
like mediation but, it is not a rigid classification and there are
overlaps between the two; as in the yin and yang principle there is
some of each in both. Breathing is the most important aspect
of this art because "to the Chinese air was non- material and could
therefore only be a vehicle for the forces of energy" (1971 Mann 49).
Qigong defined as "manipulation of vital energy, '...has been practiced
in China for thousands of years" and "it is based on the premise that
'Qi,' or 'vital energy,' is a life force which runs throughout the
body and can be developed and directed by Qigong exercises" (1986
Psi Research 40).
"The cure of disease is said
to be due to the effects of Qi, which under the influence of mind
conduction, flows along the meridians and attacks the diseased site"
and "Qi also operates systematically to moderate the human body's
immunological functions" (1986 Shen 139). "In respect to mind-body
effects, "medical practitioners "clearly understood the value of Qigong
in treating certain diseases" (138).
The Thalmic Neuron Theory explains
this benefit as a result of:
The peripherally originated stimulations from the
breathing apparatus, together with the
imagery-induced, neocortex-originated stimulations on the composite
homunucleus, stimulate the respiration related neural
circuitries and drive the chi or neural
transmissions along these channels, normalizing and strengthening
the neuronal functions along the way to
maintain harmony or hemeostasis for the
entire body...(1994 Lee 298)
Or, in plain English, "internal chi drives respiration
and respiration drives internal chi" (1994 Lee 298).
Even if one rejects qi theory
it is still accepted by skeptics that qigong has health benefits and
they explain it's benefits as follows:
Since such exercisers generally include a mixture
of low-impact isometrics and stretching
exercises, the physical health benefits should be obvious. As
for mental and spiritual benefits, these
can be explained in two ways. One is the simple
fact that regular exercise is good for one's mind and promotes a feeling
of physical well-being. More interesting
perhaps is the proved effect that meditative- type
mental-relaxation exercises can have on one's health. It has
been proved that if one forces one's mind
to relax, then one's blood pressure, respiratory rate, and so
on, are reduced. (1995 Huston 41)
Qigong much like yoga involves stylized poses with meditation
, stretching and breath exercises. The qigong exercises include
various mind and body conditioning techniques which can probably best
be summed up as starting out with easy tasks and building up to very
extreme tasks over a period of months and years. There
are qigongs designed for health, longevity and martial arts.
The martial applications were noticed as side effects of the other
types and further refined. Health qigong is used to treat certain
conditions and prevent others. A qigong master is able to use
his life energy to help others, similar to reiki or therapeutic touch.
Longevity qigong is used to slow the metabolic processes of the body
to extend life. Various forms of martial arts qigong exist and are
generally divided into two groups the external or hard styles and
internal or soft styles. Many of the qigongs overlap one another
in their intended purposes. For example a martial qigong known
as Lin Kong Jing (powerful empty force) is trained in to develop the
qi to the point where aggressors can be repelled without physical
contact yet, this also gives the qigong practitioner a stronger external
qi healing ability. In Japan Kozo Nishino practices a qigong
which produces similar results except he combines the martial application
and healing application by "repelling" his clients to strengthen their
qi. Observers see this as similar to magnets repelling each
other [reminicent of the animal magnetism theory] while clients say
it feels good and strengthens their qi (1995 Neff 60). One client,
Masaaki Morita, an engineering graduate, commented on the repelling:
"I don't particularly want to fly, but I fly" (60). At a Lin
Kong Jing seminar conducted by Richard Mooney, in which I was a participant
observer, I noted a very similar response by many of the participants
as they appeared to be involuntarily pulled forward and pushed back
by qi.
Several types of Qigong practice
are recommended for different conditions and among the more widely
practiced styles in China are the following:
1) The Relaxation Exercise (Fang Song Gong).
This type of Qigong is the most popular
and easiest to learn. In some ways it is similar to the Western
relaxation response advocated by Herbert Benson.
It is useful in the treatment of a variety
of conditions including hypertension, glaucoma, peptic ulcer, spastic
colitis, and asthma.
2) The Internal Cultivation Exercise (Nei Yang Gong).
This technique emphasizes the cultivation
of Qi and methods of directing the Qi to the Dan Tien point
(umbilical region) or the Yang Quan (middle of the
sole of the foot), from which Qi is transferred
into the Dan Tien, accumulating vital energy. This is effective
in treating weak and
asthenic persons.
3) New Qigong Therapy (Guo Lin Gong Fa). This
is a special type of Qigong in which patients are taught to
exercise while walking and breathing simultaneously. Different
speeds are recommended for different diseases.
4) Crane Circling Exercise (He Xiang Zhuang).
This method comprises five segments of
dynamic exercise (Zhan Zhuang). The technique stresses calm
and relaxation, and the exercises easily
lead the patient into the Qigong state. Some
negative side effects have been reported from people using this technique.
5) The Induction Dynamic Exercise. This
is a kind of motion exercise generated from
the dynamics of Qi. The exercise enables a patient to perform
a dance or acrobatic pattern far more
expertly than he or she could carry it out without being
in the Qigong State. It is indicated for certain
motor dysfunctions and arthritic disease,
and it helps athletes and dancers to perform more efficiently than
usual. (1986 Shen 139).
"In spite of these differences, there are common principles
to which every type of Qigong has to adhere: mind moderation, body
moderation, and breathing moderation" (1986 Shen 139). This
leads to the ability to feel Qi and to direct it to specific areas
with many qigong systems seeking to complete a circuit between the
conception and governing meridians (the centerline front and back
of the body) which is known as the small heavenly circulation.
"An individuals sense that the flow of Qi is small or large will vary
according to how intensely the patient is practicing Qigong" (139).
Not only is the practice of
Qigong believed to be beneficial but, if one gains enough experience
with the control of Qi and becomes a master then you can possibly
use your Qi to heal others. It apparently seems that healing
improves your ability to effectively control your Qi, because "it
is of the utmost importance for the advanced Qigong practitioner to
exercise Qi" (1986 Shen 139). This healing concept is very similar
to that proposed by Franz Mesmer who believed "the healers function
was to restore balance by acting as a human magnet and channeling
the vital force to the affected area" (1992 Mind Body 42). Mesmer
"discovered that he could improve his patients' conditions simply
by passing his hands over their bodies and downwards towards their
feet...he decided that his own body must be a magnetic channel" (1992
Mind Body 40). This described method of healing is nearly the
same as that practiced by Qigong healers (and many other types of
"energy" healers) when they "treat" patients.
Cross Cultural Concepts of Life Energy
From the practice of Qigong it is also believed one
can begin to acquire special "powers" that are a by-product of the
training. "Cross-cultural commonalities exist within the methods
practitioners advocate for developing psychic abilities. Procedures
associated with sensory restriction or overload are often used (Mishlove,
1983)" (1993 McClenon 113). "All over the world, individuals
seeking altered states of consciousness constructed cosmologies based
on the inner worlds they 'discovered'..." and "they found that special
mental exercises increased the incidence of anomalous experience"
(114). Contemporary meditators recall similar experiences; a
Chinese student states:
I have no idea whether qigong [meditation] can give
me the sixth sense. But ...there
is indeed an unnamed "gas" [qi] functioning inside the body.
When playing qigong you can really feel
entirely visionary and detached. (114)
"The modern parapsychological theory coincides with
that of the yogis: extrasensory information is like a signal lost
in the noise of normal human consciousness; if this noise is reduced,
the signal can be received more clearly (Honorton, 1977)" (114).
"Parapsychological research literature supports belief in a psychic
capacity to affect another's physiological state and various experiments
indicate that gifted healers may benefit their clients paranormally
(Broughton, 1991; Edge et al., 1986)" (120).
The !Kung San of Africa's Kalahari
Desert see life energy as num which stored in the lower abdomen and
at the base of the spine and can be made to boil through dance and
healers can project healing nun or pull sickness out of the ill (1997
Cohen 24). !Kung Shamans are the masters or owners of the num
and shoot arrows of nun into students bodies to help them achieve
the proper state of consciousness (24). The Australian aborigines
cultivated life energy as a form of healing and spiritual power and
those that had this energy were seen to be able to communicate telepathically
(24-25). "In Voices of the First Day, a classic of aboriginal
spirituality, author Robert Lawlor notes that, like the Chinese, the
aborigines concentrated on an energy center four inches below the
navel,..." (25). Native American tribes also use the subtle
healing energy concept. "The Navajo say that the Winds (nilch'i)
gave life to human beings and all of nature" (25). "In SiSiWiss,
'Sacred Breath,' an indigenous healing tradition from the Puget Sound
region of Washington State, healers project power to their patient
through dance, song and laying on of hands" (25). In Hawaii,
powerful healers are known as Kahuna Ha, "Masters of the Breath,"
absorb their power from places in nature, dancing, and deep breathing
exercises (25-26). This Hawaiian practice, known as Huna
utilizes the vital life energy it calls mana in its healing rituals.
In Mexico the practitioners of curanderismo see life energy in a similar
way to qigong practitioners as seen in the following:
...all persons, animals, and certain objects can
either emit or absorb vibrating energy
(vibraciones). This vibrating energy can either be positive
or negative in both form and effect. ....According
to this theoretical premise, illness can be considered
as a concentration of negative forces within a person's body.
These negative forces, depending on their
origin and their purpose, can effect a person
physically, mentally, or socially. In
their efforts to restore their patients' health, the
curanderos use material objects to manipulate these vibrations, thus
altering or correcting the patient's surrounding
force field. (1997 Trotter & Chavira
63)
"North of the Himalayan Mountains the cultivation of
the Qi is called Qigong. South of the Himalayan Mountains energy
cultivation is called Pranayama, an aspect of Yoga. (1991 Jahnke 11)"
The Indian concept is thus, very similar to the Chinese; the energy
is seen to flow in meridians known as Nadis and the pressure points
are known as marma.
Research
The application of the Western scientific method and
Western allopathic medicine to examine the benefits of Qigong specifically
has been undertaken only recently. As Qigong has breathing exercises
as a major component there are some Western studies that have documented
the benefits of breath.
The Framingham Study on risk factors for cardiac
disease, completed in 1970 [sic] by
the National Heart and Lung Institute, found that decreased vital
repiratory capacity (breath volume in
relation to tissue uptake) was directly associated with
increased mortality (1970 Kannel). In Australia
an extensive 13 year study completed in
1983 which measured similar parameters of long life, demonstrated
that respiratory capacity was 'a powerful determining
variable', more significant in predicting
longevity than tabacco use, insulin metabolism or cholesterol levels
(1983 Cullen et al). (1991Jahnke 23)
As would be expected China took the lead in researching
this area of its cultural heritage. "In 1978 a new policy was
announced by the Chinese government to scientifically research Qigong
and thousands of people began practicing Qigong and scientists began
to conduct research with Qigong masters" (1986 Shen 138). "Advancement
of Qigong practice and research achievements eventually stimulated
the governments approval of the establishment of the Chinese Society
of Qigong Science and Research in April 1986" (138). The Ministry
of International Trade & Industry in Japan has a committee examining
practical uses of qi energy (1995 Neff 60). The Chairman of
this Committee, Professor Shigemi Sasaki, reveals that more than ten
companies are paying for qi research at Tokyo's University of Electro-Communications
(60). The consumer electronics corporation Sony has a research
team on the qi question as well (60).
It is a well-known fact that the human body and living
organisms are endowed with energy activities
such as bioelectricity. Broadly speaking, the measurements of
brain waves and the electro-potential of the skin
are a kind of biophysical measurement.
....The research which has thus far been performed on the human
body, however, is limited to the study of the internal
mechanism of the human body, using the
skin as a boundary, as it were. Chinese scientists, going one step
further, started to study the field of energy activity
created outside of the human body.
Theoretically, it was probable that if there was an electric phenomenon
inside of the human body, then it would have a certain
activity outside of the human body. (1993
Yasuo 132-133)
Some of the more "exotic" research conducted on Qigong
has the appearance of impossibility and magic about it unless one
observes it from the perspective of Einstein's theories of relativity
and quantum mechanics which have lead to modern discoveries which
suggest psi phenomena might have some scientific merit and that "whatever
the utlimate nature of reality, it seems at least that everything
in the universe might be connected in ways that we do not yet fully
comprehend" (1992 Mind Power 109). Such ideas as quantum mechanical
theory and the Heisenberg uncertainty principle can be related to
Qigong research as explained in the following:
Eastern thought sees men as integral to the universe,
no more important nor less important than
anything else. Furthermore, as a part of it, he is involved
in it, and it in him. He is a part
of nature studying itself. This insight is shared by many
western [sic] scientists, including quantum physicists
and people such as Carl Jung, the psychologist
who has done so much to bridge the gap, in every sense,
between the two hemispheres [especially with
his concept of synchronicity]. (1988 Page
108-109)
Evan Harris Walker and Helmut Schmict are among the
physicists who have "observation theories" that link psi phenomena,
such as that claimed by some qigong practitioners and researchers,
to quantum physics (1992 Mind Power 109). "Walker has described
consciousness as the brain linking with the external world via the
senses to form a kind of quantum mechanical system (1992 Mind Power
109). The work of Dr. "Hal" Puthoff with the concept of zero-point
energy (explained below) has lead to some interesting ideas of the
universe as a "sea of energy" which might be tapped for many uses
some of which could be considered psi phenomena as explained in the
following:
Throughout mankind's cultural history there has existed
the metaphysical concept that man and
cosmos are interconnected by a ubiquitous, all-pervasive sea of
energy that undergirds, and is manifest in all phenomena.
This pre-scientific concept of a cosmic
energy goes by many names in many traditions, such as ch'i,
ki or qi (Taoism), prana (yoga), mana (Kahuna), barakah
(Sufi), elan vital (Begsonian metaphysics),
and so forth. Complementary to the above
metaphysical concept, contemporary physics similarly
posits an all-pervasive energetic field called quantum zero-point
energy, a random, ambient fluctuating
energy that exists even in so-called empty space. (The
adjective zero-point means that such energy or activity exists even
at a temperature of absolute zero where
no thermal agitation effects remain.)....it is now
understood that vacuum fluctuation effects play a central role in
large-scale phenomena of interest to technologists
as well, such as the enhancement or inhibition
of spontaneous emission (the process, for example, by which we see
the environment), the generation of short-range
attractive forces between closely- spaced
materials, and the possibility of extracting useful energy from vacuum
fluctuations, the "Holy Grail" of energy research.
Should we further consider the possibility the such
random vacuum energy might be subject
to influence by consciousness or intention, then, given that it is
well understood by physicists that a restructuring
or "cohering" of vacuum energy would have
physical consequences for matter, animate or inanimate, such could
provide a rational basis for psychokinesis, healing
or other processes that are part and parcel
of the pre-scientific view. (1997 Puthoff i)
The medical usefulness of Qigong
is still a matter of dispute and much of the research tends to focus
on the healing power of masters rather than the benefit of practicing
the exercises. However, research has shown "some substantial
evidence of the function of Qigong" in many experiments (1986 Shen
140). "In China, organic and functional Qigong-treatable diseases,
documented in publications include: essential hypertension coronary
heart disease, rheumatic heart disease, heart arrhythmia, asthma,
obstructive pulmonary disease silicosis, peptic ulcer, chronic hepatitis,
spastic colon, hemorrhoids, myopia, headache, dizziness, neurasthenia,
mild and moderate cases of myasthenis gravis, and subacute and chronic
stages of stroke" (139). Some research suggests
that there can be more than a single manifestation of Qi which would
be in accord with the yin and yang conception of the theory.
"Two kinds of external Qi, functionally speaking, were suggested by
Feng; that which depresses the growth of coliform bacillus has a destructive
effect, and that which promotes growth has an enhancing effect" (1986
Shen 140).
Other experiments conducted with Chi-Kung therapy
demonstrated the tremendous and rapid
efficaciousness toward sinus allergies, hemorrhoids, prostrate gland
problems, and aging. In the hospitals, clinics
and health organizations of China, Chi-Kung
therapy is chief among the other treatments, such as chemical therapy,
surgery, and acupuncture. Chi-Kung therapy
cures and prevents diseases, whereas
the other treatments only treat diseases." (57)
Researchers have reported that after Qigong treatment
the following effects were observed: "Changes in the way light
was diffracted through liquid crystal, after a Qigong master sent
his Qi to it for 15 minutes, from a distance of 10-50 cm;...a 60-80%
reduction in the number of bacteria, about a 30% reduction in cervical
cancer cells, and about a 50% reduction in influenza viruses after
a Qigong master performed exercises around petri dishes and test tubes
containing them" (1986 Psi Research 40-41). One of the more
interesting phenomena is the occurrence of Bigu "a state in which
a person maintains a normal life with little or not intake of food
and water" subsisting chiefly on the energy or qi taken from the environment
(1997 Lu 247-248). The Chinese Military Academy of Medicine
has studied this "state" and a Medical Anthropology Ph.D. candidate
I corresponded with was attempting to get funding to study a group
of individuals in a Bigu state.
Cancer has been one of the
most commonly "cured" forms of disease by qigong. "The simple
truth is that every style of chi gong adheres to three principles:
(a) achieving a state of tranquility, (b) relaxation and release of
tension, (c) commitment and development of willpower" (1990 Dong 90).
These principles are important factors in fighting cancer. Leshan
(1977) has advocated psychological elements in cancer causation since
the fifties. External qi has as well been documented as being
effective against cancer. "Recently in a preliminary experiment,
Chen demonstrated that the external Qi of a Qigong master could depress
the growth of cultured BEL 7402 human liver cancer cells" and other
researchers have "revealed that external Qi directed at peripheral
blood in vitro can induce increase of plasma cAMP and can enhance
the phagocytic function of macrophages" (1986 Shen 140). Dr.
Feng Li-da, vice- president, General Hospital of the Chinese Navy,
Bejing, and professor of immunology, Beijing College of Traditional
Chinese Medicine, has reported the following: "by transmitting
external chi for one minute, a chi gong expert can destroy 90 percent
of colon and dysentery bacilli, and in ten minutes 60 percent of a
flu virus" and "in sixty minutes, the rate of destroyed uterine cancer
cells is also around 60 percent, and that of destroyed gastric cancer
cells 25 percent" (1990 Dong 96). Dr. Pao Long published a study
in Guolin Research Report involving 2,873 terminal cancer patients
that participated in an experiment where qigong therapy was used to
treat them. "Within a six-month period, 12% of the patients
were cured and 47% showed significant improvements in their conditions"
and "41% showed no improvement" (1985 Chang 57).
Anti-aging effects of qigong
have been noted by several researchers. Xu Hefen and associates
at the Jiangsu Provincial Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine
conducted a study with 200 retired workers, aged 52-76, who were divided
into a qigong group and a control group of nonpractitioners, each
consisted of 50 men and 50 women (1993 Hefen 137). The qigong group
practiced qigong, self-massage, and relaxation for one year at least
half an hour every day. Results reported were that active levels
of the enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD) increased dramatically in
their experiment group for both males and females compared with controls
(p<0.001) (1993 Hefen 137). SOD protects the cells from superoxide
damage which can cause aging of body tissues resulting in wrinkling,
skin pigmentation changes, and joint damage; and it may induce cancer
and other immune system disorders (1980 Greenwald 455-63). In
a similar experiment at the Shanghai Academy of Traditional Chinese
Medicine and the Shanghai Qigong Institute researchers reported a
significant increase in SOD in 116 subjects after two months of qigong
training (1990 Ming 32, 1991 Sancier 369). This study also measured
estrogen levels from a sample, each of 27 subjects, chosen from
the control group and the experiment group. Comparison showed
no change among the controls but, in the qigong group estrogen
levels increased for women and decreased for men (32). Similar
results were obtained by Ankun and his group with his data suggesting
"Qigong exercises play an important role in establishing homeostasis
of sex hormones..." (1991 Ankun 157).
Hypertension and its relation
to aging has been the subject of long term qigong research.
Qigong helps to adjust the autonomic nervous system helping relaxation
which inhibits the sympathetic nervous system while the parasympathetic
nervous system returns to the normal condition thus, "the parasympathetic
nervous system helps to slow down heart rate and normalize hypertension"
(1993 Lee 12). Wang and his group found 16 patients with high
blood pressure felt better by practicing qigong as compared to just
taking a rest and their blood pressure was significantly reduced by
this practice rather than simply taking a break (1990 Wang).
The Shanghai Institute of Hypertension conducted a 20 year study on
204 hypertensives in which qigong practitioners demonstrated stable,
lowered blood pressure along with alleviation of other disorders of
age such as diabetes and coronary heart disease when compared to controls
(1991 Ankun 155). "In the Qigong group of 104 cases, effective
results at consecutive stages (5, 10, 15, and 20 years of follow-up)
stabilized in 85-90.02% of the patients as against 66.67- 69.07% in
the control group" demonstrating Qigong as an effective treatment
(P<0.01- 0.001) (154). The qigong group and control group
were both given small dosages of antihypertenisive drugs and follow-up
analyses demonstrated 47.70% of the qigong group reduced intake due
to stabilized BP, while 30.85% of the control group increased dosage
(154). The researchers found that "the significant difference
(P<0.05) between the two groups indicates that long term Qigong
exercises can hinder the development of cardiovascular lesions and
slow up the aging process" (155). Xianbiao of Xiamen University
conducted a six month study of 204 hypertensives divided into qigong
and control groups with both groups receiving dosages of antihypertensive
drug. Results in the qigong group showed decrease of DBH with
increase of HDL plasma cholesterol and improved blood viscosity and
platelet aggregation abnormalities (1991 Sancier 369). "A 6-year
follow-up showed that the clinical effectiveness of treating hypertension
was 87+3% and 68+1% for the two groups respectively" (369).
Research is ongoing to determine
if emitted Qi from Qigong masters has any actual physical effect.
"Biofeedback research has now made it clear that consciousness can
control various physiological functions, not only brain waves, but
also the electric response of the skin and the heartbeat, including
blood volume" (1993 Yasuo 59). "Researchers at Jiao Tong University
in Shanghai have shown that human energy displays electromagnetic
properties when flowing within its own meridians, but takes on characteristics
of light energy, somewhat similar to lasers, when emitted out from
the body through the hands" (1994 Reid 262). This "emission
of the external Qi has proved to be closely related to mind conduction"
(1986 Shen 140). This Qi "beam of energy projected from the
healer's hands traveled over distances of 26-165 yards without a drop
in power" and "penetrated 4 inches of leather, 2 inches of wood, 2
inches of brick, and two sheets of iron" (1994 Reid 262). "Recently,
Lu and his group, using liquid crystal and a He-Ne Laser instrument
have demonstrated that 7 out of 14 Qigong masters emitting external
Qi were able to produce double-beam refraction while directing their
palm toward the liquid crystal. Different strengths of Qi from
the Qigong masters have produced different degrees of double refraction"
(1986 Shen 140; 1986 Psi Research 40). Lu and his group have
also measured the effects of external qi (emitted by qigong master
Dr. Yan Xin) on tap water, 0.9% saline, 50% glucose solution, and
1.5 mg/ml medemycine solution using a SPEX 1403 laser Raman spectrometer;
their measurements lead them to conclude that external qi influenced
the structures of these solutions (1997 Lu 325-338, also in Ziran
Zazhi (The Nature Journal) in Chinese, vol. 11, pp. 567-571, 1988).
Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) was used to examine the effect
of external qi on phase transition of dipalmitoyl phosphatidyl choline
(DPPC) liposome (artificial lipid membrane) with the result that a
new large thermal absorption step was induced at 46 degrees C or 51
degrees C with the new step being ten times larger than the original
phase transition absorption peak of 41.5 C (1997 Lu 339-344, also
in Ziran Zazhi (The Nature Journal) in Chinese, vol. 11, pp.
572-573, 1988). External qi's effect on the absorption of UV
light of calf thymus DNA and yeast RNA was measured using a Swiss
KONTRON UVIKON, Model 860 demonstrating "varying extents of the hyperchromic
effect, which could be caused by the breaking of hydrogen bonds in
the nucleic acid chains" (345-353, also in Ziran Zazhi (The
Nature Journal) in Chinese, vol. 11, pp. 647-649, 1988). The
effect on a syngas system (H2 +CO) demonstrated that CO2 could
be produced at room temperature by external qi (355-362, also in Ziran
Zazhi (The Nature Journal) in Chinese, vol. 11, pp. 650-652, 1988).
Emitted qi was able to affect the bromination of hexane causing a
color change when it was directed at a mixture of bromine and n-hexane
kept at room temperature and insulated from light (363-371, also in
Ziran Zazhi (The Nature Journal) in Chinese, vol. 11, pp. 653-655,
1988). This effect was also observed when qi was applied from
remote distances and controls demonstrated no color change.
One of the more astounding experiments, that requires a firm belief
in quantum mechanics, documented qigong master Dr. Yan Xin changing
the radioactive decay rate of americium isotope 241 (measured
using a flat-surface type high purity germanium gamma spectrometer,
model GLP 44510/15) (373-386, also in Ziran Zazhi (The Nature
Journal) in Chinese, vol. 11, pp. 809-812, 1988). This is very
significant as "the decay rate of a radioactive source is usually
extremely stable and cannot be altered even by such physical or chemical
processes as high temperature, high pressure, high electromagnetic
field, strong acid, or strong base"(385). This experiment as
well documented the ability of the isotope to be effected from distances
of 100 meters to 1900 kilometers. In another related experiment
the half-life of americium 241 was changed and ultraviolet absorption
of deionized water was effected when Dr. Yan Xin emitted qi from the
United States directed to the experiment in Beijing, China, a distance
of over 10,000 kilometers (387-399, also in ZhonghuaQigong(China
Qigong) in Chinese, vol. 1, pp. 4-6, 1993).
Various methods are employed
to detect and measure the external manipulation of Qi. "Koo
reported that so-called external Qi emitted by highly experienced
Qigong masters can be detected using an infrared radiation receiver"
and he identified it as "low frequency infrared radiation" (1986 Shen
140). Another method employed "an AGA 750 Thermal Image Instrument"
to measure "thermal image change in the arm and hand of a Qigong master
exercising Qigong" it was observed that "temperature rose 2 to 4 degrees
centigrade while the image of the flow of Qi linked up in a line much
more marked and much clearer than prior to exercising Qi" (140).
Both the thermal and image change disappeared and reverted to the
original state when Qi flow was stopped and "in healthy persons, this
phenomenon did not appear, no matter which procedure a person was
taught to perform" (140).
Wang discusses the biological effects of infrared
radiation. First, the thermal effect
is produced by far infrared radiation. Second, the nonthermal
effect is produced by near infrared radiation.
Third, absorption and penetration of infrared
radiation are influenced by pigmentation of skin, degree of reflection
and distal permeability. (140)
Wang used a lithium fluoride crystal or LiF(Mg, Ti)
themoluminescent dosimeter with a positive response to measure the
presence of a "qi-field" at a qi-emitting lecture conducted by qigong
master Dr. Yan Xin (1997 Lu 315-324, also in Proceedings of the
Second National Academic Conference on Qigong Science, Qingdao,
China, August, 1988, in Chinese).
Applications for qigong have
been found for pilots of military aircraft. A qigong maneuver
(Q-G) has been developed for use in experiments by the Chinese Air
Force for dealing with high G-stress. "The experimental results
showed that, when performing the Q-G maneuver, even during high G-stress,
the intrathoracic pressure remained negative or marginally positive,
being close to resting values" (1992 Zhang et al. 801). "So
the Q-G maneuver, owing to its respiratory characteristic, might solve
the incompatibility between the oxygen systems of aircraft and anti-G
maneuvering" (799).
Research on animals has been
conducted to attempt to eliminate psychological influences in experiments
with emitted qi. Anesthetized cats and rabbits were recorded
for EP and EEG as a qigong master emitted qi and was able to change
both readings (1991 Sancier 370). One experiment on rats has
suggested that emitted qi can damage tumor cells and inhibit their
growth. The qi treated rats:
...1) were healthier and more active, 2) their tumors
could be excised more readily, 3) their
tumor volume and mass were less were less (e.g., 1.32 g compared with
2.2 g for control (p<0.01), 4) the number of tumor
cells per unit area of examination were
less (p<0.01-0.001), 5) the areas of necrosis and bleeding of the
tumors were greater, suggesting that the tumor cells
were being killed, 6) their hemoglobin
content was much higher (p<0.01), 7) their tumor growth rates and
metastasis were slower, 8) their peripheral lymph
nodes were larger and more abundant (3
or 4 compared to 2 or 3 for the control), 9) their spleens
were more normal and cells in these organs were in
a more active regenerative state, 10)
infiltration of their lymph cells into the tumors were more obvious,
and a number of irregular macrophages
were found in the lymph sinus, and 11) visual inspection
revealed differences in color. (1991 Sancier 373)
Research on plants has, as well, shown some interesting
results. An experiment with rice (Japanese indica) had the following
results: "1) the percentages of seeds that germinated were generally
greater for the Qi-treated seeds than for those of the controls, and
2) significantly greater germination rates occurred when the seeds
had been Qi-treated in the time periods of 08:00-08:30 and 16:00-16:30"
(1991 Sancier 375-376).
The following issues have been
raised with regard to problems in some of the research coming out
of China:
a)Too few subjects, no controls, not enough control
subjects or not
controlling those
variables that can be controlled...
b)Not enough testing of qigong against other modalities....
c)How to measure competence?... [of the teacher or
healer]
d)Vested interests....
e)Unconfirmed diagnosis and cure....
f)Vague or outdated diagnostic labels....
g)Sloppy reporting of procedure.... (1997 Cohen
349-350)
Fortunately, the situation is improving and research
is being conducted more extensively in the U.S. which should yield
more acceptable results and standards for the scientific community.
With some of the more esoteric claims this is apparently quite necessary
as many of the claims leave Westerners with the cultural impression
of "I'll believe it when I see it."
Conclusion
The concept of the energy system of the body has resulted
in many applications and practices. There are many ways of conceiving
of this life-force whether it be as Qi or as nerve transmissions it
still involves some type of bioenergy. This concept is certainly
worthy of more rigorous investigation by Western science and medicine.
The concept of this life force can have very tangible results in many
areas as stated by Tart:
If ki is nothing more than an imagined picture, a
deliberate but arbitrary visualization,
the forms in which we image it should be almost unlimited,
since we can imagine almost anything. The fact
is, though that visualizing ki as something
fluid that is flowing freely, while subjective, has objective effects
...Images, the subjective, can be a very effective
way of guiding your body. So in
some ways, ki is subjective and imaginary, but it can be an effective
use of imagination. especially if the
visualization is strong and appropriate. By analogy,
the electrical flow comprising the program in a computer is subtle
and
subjective compared to the solid reality of
the hardware. Without a correctly written
program to guide it, though, the hardware doesn't do anything useful.
(1987 343)
The traditional Chinese system may have much to offer
and teach to Western science and medicine that we are only now beginning
to learn and independently confirm. The system is based on very
long periods of observation of the human condition and much of the
information is difficult to access because it is very intertwined
with the diverse and complex culture in which it evolved.
Western philosophy and science since the modern period
have developed while focusing on the physical
world as external in nature. In contrast, traditional
philosophy and science in East Asia developed as
a kind of practical anthropology to actualize
the original human nature latent in the mind and body.
(1993 Yasuo 188)
We are beginning to untangle beneficial practices from
the superstitions and legends that accompany traditional cultural
contexts, such as healing systems, and often explain them to suit
our Western scientific belief model. However, we must be wary
of the danger involved in such an ethnocentric undertaking so that,
in the translation, nothing of great value is lost simply because
we cannot explain it. We must remember that very often cultural
practices have valid reasons for existence (see 1996 Harris, The Cultural
Ecology of India's Sacred Cattle) that have very little to do with
their stated purpose and in traditional health systems they might
have an unseen yet, valid health basis.
Chapter 3
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